Summary

 

1) When we determine that the time component in what we want to say does not clearly answer to the question “When?” because it indicates duration – and answers to a “How long?” type question – then we must use either the Pas Perfect, the Present Perfect or the Future Perfect structure of grammar. 

 

1A) If we want to talk about a period of time that ended in the Past, it has to be Past Perfect.

 

- “to be” form: had been

- TENSE: subject + had + 3rd form

- CONTINUOUS: subject + had been + 1st form with “-ing”

- PASSIVE: subject + had been + 3rd form

 

 

1B) If we want to talk about a period of time that is “unfinished”, it must be Present Perfect.

 

- “to be” form: have/has been

- TENSE: subject + have/has + 3rd form

- CONT.: subject + have/has been + 1st form with “-ing”

- PASSIVE: subject + have/has been + 3rd form

 

 

1C) The Future Perfect we use when the time period we talk about is in the Future.

 

- “to be” form: will have been

- TENSE: subject + will have + 3rd form

- CONT.: subject + will have been + 1st form with “-ing”

- PASSIVE: subject + will have been + 3rd form

 

 

2) When we determine that the time component in what we want to say clearly answers to the question “When?”, we use the following:

 

2A) Past:

 

- “to be” form: was/were

- TENSE: subject + 2nd form

- CONT.: subject + was/were + 1st form with “-ing”

- PASSIVE: subject + was/were + 3rd form

 

2B) Present

 

- “to be” form: am/are/is

- TENSE: subject + 1st form

- CONT.: subject + am/are/is + 1st form with “-ing”

- PASSIVE: subject + am/are/is + 3rd form

 

 

2C) Future

 

- “to be” form: will be

- TENSE: subject + will + 1st form

- CONT.: subject + will be + 1st form with “-ing”

- PASSIVE: subject + will be + 3rd form

 

 

Exercise: (keys at the end of the book, before the 3 forms of irregular verbs)

 

Fill in the missing (if needed)

1. Before the guests arrived, there ______ a Citroen in the garage.

2. There _______ a nice picture on the wall since Monday.

3. There _____________ two more demonstrations on the square during the rest of the week.

4. Before the guests arrived, I ___ not spoken English for three weeks.

5. Yesterday, my company ____ promoted me.

6. Recently, they ____ not eaten any meat.

7. My friend ____ always worked much until now.

8. We _____ not had our lunch yet.

9. ______ you ever visited Japan?

10. She ____ not seen that picture.

11. These days, I _____ work a lot.

12. She _____ speaks English.

13. They ____ not understand.

14. It _____ costs too much.

15. Tomorrow, I ______ read the Bible.

16. Yesterday at 5 pm, I ______ swimming.

17. The taxi driver ______ waiting for his passenger.

18. Tomorrow at 8 pm, I ________ eating dinner with my wife.

19. Last year, there ____ no chairs in the garden.

20. There _____ many people in the city today.

21. There ____ at least five hundred people at last Saturday's horse-race.

22. Before I moved here, my company ___ promoted me.

23. Since I moved here, my company ___ promoted me only once.

24. I ____ not seen you lately.

25. They _____ already eaten dinner.

26. I ____ just dropped my pen.

27. They _____ never seen Hungary.

28. Today, I _____ seen him twice.

29. I _____ work every other Sunday.

30. I _____ like apples.

31. You _____ speak fluent Russian.

32. By the end of next year, you will _____ passed your exams.

33. Before we started this lesson, I _________ speaking on the phone for five minutes.

34. We _________ learning English for more than 10 minutes.

35. We will ________ learning English at least for five more minutes.

 

Correct where needed:

 

36. Last year, there have been no chairs in the garden.

37. There had been many people in the city today.

38. There have been at least five hundred people at last Saturday's horse-race.

39. Before I moved here, my company had been promoted me.

40. Since I moved here, my company had promoted me only once.

41. I have not been seen you lately.

42. They will already eaten dinner.

43. I had been just dropped my pen.

44. They did never seen Hungary.

45. Today, I had seen him twice.

46. I have work every other Sunday.

47. I have been like apples.

48. You had speak fluent Russian.

49. By the end of next year, you will passed your exams.

50. Before we started this lesson, I have been speaking on the phone for five minutes.

51. We were learning English for more than 10 minutes.

52. We will be learning English at least for five more minutes.

53. Before the guests arrived, there were a Citroen in the garage.

54. There had been a nice picture on the wall since Monday.

55. There are two more demonstrations on the square during the rest of the week.

56. Before the guests arrived, I have not spoken English for three weeks.

57. Yesterday, my company has promoted me.

58. Recently, they did not eaten any meat.

59. My friend had always worked much until now.

60. We will not had our lunch yet.

61. Did you ever visited Japan?

62. I had not seen that picture.

63. These days, I work a lot.

64. She has speaks English.

65. They do not understand.

66. It is costs too much.

67. Tomorrow, I will have been read the Bible.

68. Yesterday at 5 pm, I were swimming.

79. The taxi driver was waiting for his passenger.

70. Tomorrow at 8 pm, I was eating dinner with my wife.

 

 

Future expressed with “going to”

 

Formula: “to be” form + “going to” + 1st form of verb (or “have” or “be”)

 

This structure is used when we are about to do something.

 

I am going to try it again.

I am going to have a meeting with a friend of mine.

I am going to be there soon. 

 

I am not going to try to catch up with him.

I am not going to have any more patience.

I am not going to be so tolerant from now on.

 

Are you going to talk to her about your problems?

Are you going to have another beer?

Are you going to be here on time?

 

Why is he going to waste more of his time?

What kind of wine are you going to have?

Where is George going to be in about five minutes?

 

Future expressed with Present + Future time component

 

I am visiting Rome next month.

Is he coming to see us next week?

Where is George eating lunch tomorrow?

 

 

May or Might

 

These two words are interchangeable only when talking about possibility. The “might” usually indicates less probability:

 

I may go home earlier today.

I might go home earlier today.

 

The “may” is also used to indicate permission:

 

May I come in?

 

Another use of “may” is to express hope or desire:

 

May God bless America.

 

Past form of May and Might

 

Formula: we add the helping word “have” + the 3rd form of verbs (or the possessive “have” or the “be”)

 

Examples:

 

He may have forgotten to tell George yesterday.

He might have forgotten to tell George yesterday. 

 

He may have had a strong headache.

He might have had a strong headache.

 

He may have been ill yesterday.

He might have been ill yesterday.

 

 

Would

 

The “would” is used to express condition:

 

The verb or the “have” (possessive) or the “be” made conditional with the help of “would” is always 1st form! 

 

I would work (if I had tools).

Would you come (if I sent you an invitation)?

He would have more money (if he had a job).

They would be happier (if their daughter moved back home).

 

Past form of “would”

 

The formula is the same as for the “may” and “might”:

 

We add the “have” helping word + the 3rd form of verbs (or the possessive “have” or the “be”):

 

I would have worked (if I had had my tools with me).

He would have had more fun (if his friends had been there).

They would have been happier (if their daughter had not moved).

 

 

Should

 

The “should” is used to make recommendations as well as to give advice. It can also be used to express obligation or expectation. 

 

The words (verbs, the “have”, the “be”) the “should” modifies are always in 1st form.

 

He should finish making that noise.

You should not stand so close to the rails.

They should be here by now!

George should have more patience.

 

 

Past form of “should”

 

We add the helping word “have” + the 3rd form of verbs (or the possessive “have” or the “be”):

 

You should have paid closer attention!

George should have had more patience.

I should have been there earlier.

 

 

Could

 

“Could” can be used to express possibility (He could go to jail for causing that accident.) or suggestion (We could go to Japan this summer.) or request (Could I have some of your drink?) as well as condition (I could be there if…)

It is also the Past form of “can” (I could run much faster when I was a child.)

 

The words (verbs, the possessive “have”, the “be”) the “could” modifies are always in 1st form.

 

Examples:

 

Could you pay more attention?

I could call you tomorrow.

They could help him (if they wanted to).

 

You could have a much better job.

 

They could be over the hill by now.

 

Could you finish the job yesterday?

 

Past form of “could”

 

We add the helping word “have” + the 3rd form of verbs (or the possessive “have” or the “be”):

 

They could have visited us by now.

We could have traveled to Europe after winning all that money.

Could you have been there (if … )?

He could have had higher wages (if …).

 

 

“Must” or “have/has to” or “ought to” or “need to”

 

All 4 express necessity or requirement but they have somewhat different uses. 

 

I need to brush my teeth after eating this chewy meat. (It is necessary to brush my teeth but it is not an obligation.)

 

Past: We needed to understand our duties so we asked him for clarification.

 

Future: You will need to buy a pair of new shoes soon.

 

 

She has to get up early every morning. (It is important that she gets up early every morning to catch the train.)

 

Past: She had to get up early every morning.

 

Future: She will have to get up early every morning.

 

 

A have/has to and the ought to are interchangeable. The difference is that the have to changes to has to in 3rd person and other singular but the ought to does not change its form.

 

 

He must appear in court tomorrow. (He must appear in court because of the law.)

 

Past: He had to appear in court yesterday.

 

Future: He will have to appear in court yesterday. (Or “He must appear in court tomorrow.”)

 

The must and the have/has to are often interchangeable:

 

Must that radio be so loud? = Does that radio have to be so loud? 

 

 

The must can also be used to express probability:

 

He must be at least 60 years old. (He is probably at least 60 years old.)

 

 

Must have vs. Might have + 3rd forms

 

They can be used to indicate Past probabilities and possibilities:

 

George must have forgotten to set his alarm clock. (He probably forgot to set his alarm clock, that is why he is late.)

George must have had a bad day yesterday. (George looks irritated, he probably had a bad day yesterday)

George must have been very tired after the game. (It was a tough game, it probably made George very tired.)

 

The guests might have missed the plane. (It is possible that the guests are not here because they missed the plane.) 

The guests might have had an accident. (Perhaps the guests are not here because they had an accident.)

The guests might have been late for their flight. (Perhaps the guests are not here because they were late for their flight.)

 

 

Conditional sentences

 

1. “if” + subject + 1st forms, subject + will + 1st forms

2. “if” + subject + 2nd forms, subject + would + 1st forms

3. “if” + subject + had + 3rd forms, subject + would + the helping word “have” + 3rd forms

 

1. Future: If it rains, we will take our umbrella.

2. Present: If it rained, we would take our umbrella.

3. Past: If it had rained, we would have taken our umbrella. (Or: … we would have had a horrible day.

 

More examples for 1. (Future Conditional)

 

If George arrives on time, we will take the next train.

If he does not arrive on time, we will travel by bus.

Will we take the next train if George arrives on time?

Which train will we take if George does not arrive on time?

 

If you have money, we will go to the cinema.

If you have no money, we will not go to the cinema.

Will we go to see a show if I have enough money in my pocket?

 

If George is here on time, we will be on the next train.

If he is not here on time, we will not be on the next train.

Will we be on the next train if George is here on time?

Why will we not be on the next train if George is here on time?

 

More examples for 2. (Present Conditional)

 

If George arrived on time, we would take the next train.

If he did not arrive on time, we would travel by bus.

Would we take the next train if George arrived on time?

Which train would we take if George did not arrive on time?

 

If you had money, we would go to the cinema.

If you had no money, we would not go to the cinema.

Would we go to see a show if I had enough money in my pocket?

 

If George was here on time, we would be on the next train.

If he was not here on time, we would not be on the next train.

Would we be on the next train if George was here on time?

Why would we not be on the next train if George was here on time?

 

 

More examples for 3. (Past Conditional)

 

If George had arrived on time, we would have taken the train.

If he had not arrived on time, we would have traveled by bus.

Would we have taken the train if George had arrived on time?

Which train would we have taken if George had not arrived on time?

 

If you had had money, we would have visited the zoo.

If you had not had money, we would not have visited the zoo.

Would we have visited the zoo if I had had enough money?

 

If George had been here on time, we would have taken the train.

If he had not been here on time, we would not have taken the train.

Would we have been on the train if George had been here on time?

Why would we have not taken the train if he had been here on time?

 

 

Many vs. Much

 

We use many for countable and much for uncountable. 

 

Is “money” countable? No, but “dollars, euros” are. 

 

There is much money in my pocket.

He has many dollars in his pocket.

 

 

More or most vs -er or -est

 

Basic rule: 

a.) short words (1 syllable or 2 syllables) get the ending -er or -est, b.) longer words are modified by more or most.

 

a.) nicer, the nicest 

b.) more wonderful, the most wonderful

 

 

Less or Fewer

 

Basic rule:

Fewer is used for countable, less is used for uncountable.

 

There are fewer trees in the garden this year.

There is less water in the lake this year.

 

 

More than, Less than, Fewer than, 

As much as, As many as

 

There is more water in the oceans than in the lakes.

There are more cars in America than in Germany.

 

There is less water in the lakes than in the oceans.

There are fewer cars in Germany than in America.

 

There is as much water in this glass as in the other one.

There are as many trees in this garden as in the other one.

 

(The “one” is substitute when we do not want to repeat. Here it substitutes “this glass” and “this garden”.)

 

 

Same as, Different than, Different from

 

The quality of this leather is about the same as what we saw yesterday in that other store.

 

The difference between different than and different from:

 

With different than we compare: The quality of this textile is different than what we saw yesterday in the other store.

 

With different from we distinguish, for example, between two things: German wine is definitely different from French wine.

 

 

Possessive

 

For living creatures it is formed with ‘s

For non living things it is formed with “of”

 

This is my wife’s car.

The windows of that building are broken.

 

In case of double possessive, both should be used:

 

The tires of my wife’s car are new.

The son of my friend’s daughter has just graduated.

 

When the word (plural) ends in a letter “s”, only the ‘ sign is used:

 

The players’ room is upstairs.

 

The plural of an irregular noun is followed by ‘s: 

 

children’s toys, men’s room

 

 

 

Pronouns

 

Subject - Possessive - Possessive - Object

 

I………....my……….mine.………..me

you……...your…....yours..……….you

he………..his……….his..………….him

she………her.……...hers………….her

it.………..its………...its….………...it

we……….our..……..ours.………...us

you……...your…..…yours………..you

they……..their….…theirs………..them

 

The Object Pronouns are usually used with prepositions: 

 

He came with me.

We got this book from them.

She could not do it without you.

 

When we omit the „to” preposition, the Object Pronoun follows the verb:

 

He gave me a book.

Give her the money.

 

If we use the „to” preposition, the Object Pronouns will go to the end of the sentence together with the prepositions:

 

He gave a book to me.

Give the money to her.

 

 

The Possessive Pronouns have short and long forms. Usually, we use the short form in front of the possession, and the long form after the possession:

 

This is my book. ----------- This book is mine.

This is your book. ----------This book is yours.

This is his book. ------------This book is his.

This is her book. ------------This book is hers.

This is our book. ------------This book is ours.

This is their book. ----------This book is theirs.

 

 

Keys to the Exercise:

 

1. Before the guests arrived, there had been a Citroen in the garage.

2. There has been a nice picture on the wall since Monday.

3. There will have been two more demonstrations on the square during the rest of the week.

4. Before the guests arrived, I had not spoken English for three weeks.

5. Yesterday, my company promoted me.

6. Recently, they have not eaten any meat.

7. My friend has always worked hard until now.

8. We have not had our lunch yet.

9. Have you ever visited Japan?

10. She has not seen that picture.

11. These days, I work a lot.

12. She speaks English.

13. They do not understand.

14. It costs too much.

15. Tomorrow, I will read the Bible.

16. Yesterday at 5 pm, I was swimming.

17. The taxi driver is/has been waiting for his passenger.

18. Tomorrow at 8 pm, I will be eating dinner with my wife.

19. Last year, there were no chairs in the garden.

20. There are many people in the city today.

21. There were at least five hundred people at last Saturday's horse-race.

22. Before I moved here, my company had promoted me.

23. Since I moved here, my company has promoted me only once.

24. I have not seen you lately.

25. They have already eaten dinner.

26. He has just dropped his pen.

27. They have never seen Hungary.

28. Today, I have seen him twice.

29. I work every other Sunday.

30. I like apples.

31. You speak fluent Russian.

32. By the end of next year, you will have passed your exams.

33. Before we started this lesson, I had been speaking on the phone for five minutes.

34. We have been learning English for more than 10 minutes.

35. We will have been learning English at least for five more minutes.

 

Correct where needed

 

36. Last year, there were no chairs in the garden.

37. There are many people in the city today.

38. There were at least five hundred people at last Saturday's horse-race.

39. Before I moved here, my company had promoted me.

40. Since I moved here, my company has promoted me only once.

41. I have not seen you lately.

42. They have already eaten dinner.

43. I have just dropped my pen.

44. They have never seen Hungary.

45. Today, I have seen him twice.

46. I work every other Sunday.

47. I like apples.

48. You speak fluent Russian.

49. By the end of next year, you will have passed your exams.

50. Before we started this lesson, I had been speaking on the phone for five minutes.

51. We have been learning English for more than 10 minutes.

52. We will have been learning English at least for five more minutes.

53. Before the guests arrived, there had been a Citroen in the garage.

54. There has been a nice picture on the wall since Monday.

55. There will have been two more demonstrations on the square during the rest of the week.

56. Before the guests arrived, I had not spoken English for three weeks.

57. Yesterday, my company promoted me.

58. Recently, they have not eaten any meat.

59. My friend has always worked much until now.

60. We have not had our lunch yet.

61. Have you ever visited Japan?

62. I have not seen that picture.

63. These days, I work a lot.

64. She speaks English.

65. They do not understand.

66. It costs too much.

67. Tomorrow, I will read the Bible.

68. Yesterday at 5 pm, I was swimming.

69. The taxi driver is/has been waiting for his passenger.

70. Tomorrow at 8 pm, I will be eating dinner with my wife.

 

1st, 2nd, 3rd forms of frequently used irregular verbs

 

arise …………….arose …………...arisen

bear ……...……..bore …………….born

beat ……………..beat ……………..beaten

become ………..became ………...become

begin…….…….. began ..………...begun

bend …………....bent …………....bent

bind ………….…bound ..………...bound

bite ……………..bit ….…………….bitten

bleed …………...bled ……………..bled

blend …..…….blended, blent ..blended, blent

blow ……….……blew …………….blown

break …………...broke …………..broken

breed …………...bred .…………...bred

bring …………….brought ……….brought

build …………….built …………….built

burn ……………..burnt …………..burnt

buy ..……………..bought ………...bought

catch …………….caught ………….caught

choose ..….…….chose …………...chosen

come …………….came …………….come

cost ……………...cost …..………….cost

cut ………………..cut …..…………..cut

deal .……………..dealt …..………..dealt

dig ..……………...dug …………..….dug

do ………………...did …..…………..done

draw ……………..drew ……………..drawn

dream …………..dreamed…….….dreamed, dreamt

drink ………..…..drank …………….drunk

drive ..…………..drove ……………..driven

eat ..……………...ate ………………...eaten

fall ………………..fell ………………...fallen

feed ……………...fed ………………...fed

feel .……………...felt ………………...felt

fight ……………..fought.…………….fought

find ……………...found ……………..found

fly ………………...flew ………………..flown

forget .…………..forgot ……..………forgot, forgotten

forgive ………….forgave…………….forgiven

freeze …………...froze ……………….frozen

get ………………..got .………………...gotten

give ……………...gave ………………..given

go ………………...went ….…………...gone

grow ……………..grew ……………….grown

have/has ……….had ………………...had

hear ……………...heard ……..……...heard

hit ………………...hit ………………….hit

hold ……………...held ………………..held

hurt …..………….hurt ………………..hurt

keep ……………...kept ………………..kept

know ……………..knew ………………known

lay …………………laid ………………...laid

lead ..……………..led ……..…………..led

learn …………...learned, learnt .…learned, learnt

leave ..…………..left ………….………left

let ………..……….let …………………..let

lie ………………….lay …………….…..lain

light ……………...lit, lighted ..……..lit, lighted

lose ……………….lost ………………….lost

make ..…………..made ………………..made

mean ..…………..meant ……………….meant

meet ……………..met …………………..met

melt ………………melted …………...melted, molten

mistake ………....mistook …………..mistaken

misunderstand…misunderstood..misunderstood

pay ……………….paid ……………….….paid

prove …………….proved …..…………proved, proven

put ………………..put .…………………..put

quit ……………….quit, quitted ..…….quit, quitted

read ………………read …………………..read

rid .………………..rid, ridded ………...rid, ridded

ride ……………….rode …………………..ridden

ring ……….………rang …………………..rung

rise .……………….rose …………………..risen

run ………..……….ran …………………..run

saw …….………….sawed ……………...sawed, sawn

say …………………..said ………………….said

see …………………..saw …………………..seen

seek ………………...sought ……………...sought

sell …………………..sold .………………...sold

send ………………...sent ………………….sent

set …………………...set …………………….set

shake ……………….shook ………………..shaken

shave .……………...shaved .….………..shaved, shaven

shine ……………..shone, shined …….shone, shined

shoot .……………….shot .………………...shot

show .…….………….showed …….……..showed, shown

shred .…….……….shred, shredded …..shred, shredded

shrink …………….shrank, shrunk …...shrunk, shrunken

shut ………………….shut ………………...shut

sing ………………….sang ………………….sung

sink ………………….sank ………………….sunk

sit …………………….sat …………………….sat

sleep ………………...slept ………………….slept

slide ………………….slid …………………..slid, slidden

smell ……….……...smelled, smelt ..…...smelled, smelt

speak ………………..spoke .……………….spoken

speed …….………..speeded, sped ..……speeded, sped

spell ….…………….spelled, spelt .……..spelled, spelt

spend ………………..spent ………………..spent

spread ……………...spread ……………….spread

stand ..……………….stood ……….………..stood

steal …………………..stole ………………...stolen

stick …………………..stuck ………………..stuck

strike ………………struck ……………….struck, stricken

swear ……………...swore ……………….sworn

sweat ……………...sweatted, sweat …sweatted, sweat

sweep ………………..swept ………………..swept

swim ………………….swam ……………….swum

take …………………..took ..………………..taken

teach ………………...taught ……………….taught

tear …………………..tore …………………...torn

tell ……………………told ……………………told

think ………………..thought ……………...thought

throw ……………….threw ………………….thrown

understand ……….understood ………...understood

wake ………………..waked, woke ……….woke, woken

wear ………………...wore …………………..worn

win …………………..won …………………...won

write …………………wrote ………………...written

 

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